The turn of the twentieth century brought profound changes to millions of Americans, and African Americans were no exception. Crop failures, economic hardships, and the failures of Reconstruction stimulated a Great Migration of southern blacks to northern cities at the end of the nineteenth century. They arrived in cities already teeming with millions of European immigrants. Within a single generation, these once agrarian people developed a distinctly urban lifestyle and culture. Racism and a glutted labor market prevented many African Americans from attaining the better life they sought. Despite these setbacks, they established new cultural institutions and modified older ones to meet the needs of urban life. Discussions within African American communities in this period revolved around achieving political, economic and social equality.
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